❞ كتاب Writing in English ❝ ⏤ مجموعة من المؤلفين

هذا القسم يهتم بالكتابة باللغة الإنجليزية .

الكتابة تُمثّل لُغة نصية عبر استخدام رسومات رمزية (حروف)، ويمكن بها توثيق النطق ونقل الفكَر والأحداث إلى رموز يمكن قراءتها حسب نموذج مخصص لكل لغة. وبدأ الإنسان الكتابة عن طريق الرسم ثم تطورت هذه الرموز إلى أحرف لكي تختصر وقت الكتابة.

ولقد بدأ الإنسان الكتابة مستخدما الوسائل المتاحة لديه حيث بدأ باستخدام النقش على الحجر لتدوين ما يريده ثم انتقل إلى الكتابة على أوعية أخرى كالرق والبردي والورق الذي اخترع في بداية القرن الثاني الميلادي. ثم ما لبث الإنسان الأكثر تقدما أن اخترع الآلات التي تساعده على الكتابة مثل الآلات الكاتبة والمطابع، وأخيرا أصبح الإنسان يستخدم الكتابة من خلال أجهزة متقدمة مثل الحواسيب، وأصبح يتعامل اليوم بما يسمى الكتب الإلكترونية.

Writing is a medium of human communication that represents language with signs and symbols. For languages that utilize a writing system, inscriptions can complement spoken language by creating a durable version of speech that can be stored for future reference or transmitted across distance. Writing, in other words, is not a language, but a tool used to make languages readable.[1] Within a language system, writing relies on many of the same structures as speech, such as vocabulary, grammar, and semantics, with the added dependency of a system of signs or symbols. The result of the activity of writing is called a text, and the interpreter or activator of this text is called a reader.

H.G. Wells argued that writing has the ability to "put agreements, laws, commandments on record. It made the growth of states larger than the old city states possible. It made a continuous historical consciousness possible. The command of the priest or king and his seal could go far beyond his sight and voice and could survive his death".[3] As human societies emerged, collective motivations for the development of writing were driven by pragmatic exigencies like keeping history, maintaining culture, codifying knowledge through curricula and lists of texts deemed to contain foundational knowledge (e.g., The Canon of Medicine) or artistically exceptional (e.g., a literary canon), organizing and governing societies through the formation of legal systems, census records, contracts, deeds of ownership, taxation, trade agreements, treaties, and so on. For example, around the 4th millennium BC, the complexity of trade and administration in Mesopotamia outgrew human memory, and writing became a more dependable method of recording and presenting transactions in a permanent form.[4] In both ancient Egypt and Mesoamerica, on the other hand, writing may have evolved through calendric and political necessities for recording historical and environmental events.

Individual motivations for writing include improvised additional capacity for the limitations of human memory (e.g., to-do lists, recipes, reminders, logbooks, maps, the proper sequence for a complicated task or important ritual), dissemination of ideas (as in an essay, monograph, broadside, petition, or manifesto), imaginative narratives and other forms of storytelling, personal or business correspondence, and lifewriting (e.g., a diary or journal).

Contents
1    Writing systems
1.1    Logographies
1.2    Syllabaries
1.3    Alphabets
1.3.1    Abjads
1.3.2    Abugidas
1.4    Featural scripts
1.5    Historical significance of writing systems
1.6    Tools and materials
2    History
2.1    Mesopotamia
2.2    Egypt
2.3    Elamite scripts
2.3.1    Cretan and Greek scripts
2.4    China
2.5    Indus Valley
2.6    Central Asia
2.7    Phoenician writing system and descendants
2.8    Mesoamerica
2.9    South America
  

Writing in English

No science stands alone. If research done, findings found, conclusions drawn are
not presented to the world then it is arguable whether they are of any real use at
all. The reason for the research paper is to present the findings to the world, to
share the information learned for others to do with it what they will. Why the
research was originally conducted is of interest, but the researcher’s intentions,
goals and conclusions are not the end.
For example, a zoologist’s published observations of the chemical means of trail
marking by ants may be read by a biochemist, who in turn researches the make-up
of the chemical. These findings are then read by a chemist who synthesises the
chemical and through that research finds a means of bonding that is both durable,
but removable. Meanwhile a scientist in robotics reads the zoologist’s work and
other possibilities arise. This roboticist creates a robot that can detect and respond
to chemicals applied like paint to the floor, solving the problem of how to guide
and instruct robots on their mail-delivery rounds through an often-changing maze
in an assembly plant. No research stands alone. No researcher can foresee all of
the consequences and ramifications of their work. All science is interdisciplinary.
This is why research results and findings are published.

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